assignment 3

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Multiprogramming.Why is it used?Multiprogramming is the technique of running several programs at a time using timesharing. It allows a computer to do several things at the same time. Multiprogramming creates logical parallelism. The concept of multiprogramming is that the operating system keeps several jobs in memory simultaneously. The operating system selects a job from the job pool and starts executing a job, when that job needs to wait for any i/o operations the CPU is switched to another job. So the main idea here is that the CPU is never idle.
Internal Fragmentation.How does it occur? Internal fragmentation is the space wasted inside of allocated memory blocks because of restriction on the allowed sizes of allocated blocks. Allocated memory may be slightly larger than requested memory; this size difference is memory internal to a partition, but not being used
Compaction: Why is it need?
Compaction is very needed because it is the process of collecting fragments of available memory space into contiguous in block by moving programs and data in a computer's memory disks, or known as garbage collection.
Relocation: How often should it performed? It depend on the process of address refferences in program.
#2. Describe the Major Disadvantages for each of the four memory allocation schemes presented in the chapter. The disadvantage of this memory allocation its an overhead process, so that while compaction is being done everything else must wait.
#3.Describe the Major Advantages for each of the memory alloatiuon schemes presented in the chapter. They could be divided into segments of variable sizes of equal size. Each page, or segment, could be stored wherever there was an empty block best enough to hold it


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Exercises:#4
What is the cause of thrashing?
Thrashing is caused by under allocation of the minimum number of pages required by a process, forcing it to continuously page fault.
B:How does the operating system detect thrashing?
The system can detect thrashing by evaluating the level of CPU utilization as compared to the level of multiprogramming.
C:Once thrashing is detcted, what can the operating system do to iliminate it?
It can be eliminated by reducing the level of multiprogramming.

#5

What purpose does the referenced bit serve in a demand paging system?
The main idea here was to have the operation system maintain its own array of reference bits (that's the easy part) the tricky part is that the OS must somehow learn about the accesses made to pages. The best way to do this was to mark pages as invalid so that an access to the page causes a trap to the OS, which can do the bookkeeping (of course, the OS must keep extra information around to be able to tell which page table entries are truly invalid). The clock algorithm could reset the invalid bit when it checked an accessed page. The extra costs are additional traps to the OS just for normal references (depend on how fast your clock moves) and extra complexity in the OS.

Assignment # 2

Windows Operating System;

The Windows NT Virtual Memory ManagerIn Windows NT, responsibility for managing the relationship between the virtual organization of memory (as seen by applications) with the physical organization of memory (as seen by the operating system) falls on a component of the Windows NT executive called the virtual memory (VM) manager .Memory Management GoalsWindows NT is a portable, secure, multithreaded, multiprocessing operating system. As a result, its virtual memory manager must:• Be compatible with multiple processor types • Protect the NT Executive from applications • Protect applications from each other • Provide mechanisms for programs to efficiently share physical memory (RAM). • Be efficientAn Application's View of MemoryIn Windows NT, applications access memory using a 32-bit linear addressing scheme. This scheme is sometimes referred to as flat memory model because applications view memory as one linear (or flat) array of memory locations. Applications address memory using simple 32-bit offsets from address zero (0). Since a 32-bit offset can specify 232 memory addresses, each application can access up to 4 Gb of (virtual) memory. The range of addresses an application can access is called the application's address space (Figure 7).The 32-bit flat memory model makes Windows NT portable because it is compatible with the memory addressing of processors such as the MIPS R4000 and DEC Alpha. It also simplifies porting of applications originally written for flat memory model environments such as Unix and the Apple Macintosh.The flat memory model used in Windows NT contrasts sharply with the segmented model used in Windows for MS-DOS. In Windows for MS-DOS, memory is broken into many differently sized segments, each with a maximum length of 64K. This has been a major difficulty for developers of Windows applications for a very long time because changing segments is somewhat difficult and slow. This difficulty has led to many 64K limits in a lot of software, including the Windows 3.1 resource heap. The 32-bit flat memory model does away with all of these constraints.

UNIX OPERATING SYSTEM:

Most corporations have UNIX systems for handling heavy-duty applications. Microsoft Windows 2000 has been rapidly gaining ground because it provides better performance at lower cost. But companies aren't going to replace UNIX with Windows 2000—they've invested too much in their UNIX systems over the years. So many companies are choosing to add Windows 2000 to support departmental functions. It's expensive and inefficient to run two separate systems side by side so network and IT managers need to learn how to integrate Windows 2000 with their existing UNIX systems. This book shows them how to do just that and much more. The expert authors of this book approach Windows 2000 from a UNIX Systems administrator's point of view.